Research Design and Research method

Research:  Research aims to find answers to questions through the use of scientific method.

§  Pure or Basic research

§  Applied Research

Pure or Basic research: A research problem may arise from a desire to know for the sake of knowing, in which case it is referred to as pure or basic research.

Applied Research: A research problem may come from a desire to gain knowledge for useful ends, in which it is referred to as applied research. It is practical in nature.

 Three types of research:

                                                                                          I.            Exploratory;

                                                                                        II.            Descriptive and

                                                                                      III.            Explanatory

Exploratory; Descriptive and Explanatory

Exploratory: research is designed to allow an investigator to just look around with respect to some phenomenon. The researcher should endeavor to develop suggestive ideas, and the research should be as flexible as possible.

Descriptive: the goal at this stage is to develop careful descriptions of patterns that were suspected in the exploratory research.

Explanatory research: the goal at this stage is to develop explicit theory that can be used to explain the empirical generalizations that evolve from the second stage.

This is a continuous cycle of:  a. Theory construction; b. theory testing, attempts to falsify with empirical research and c. theory reformulation and back to step a.

 Two strategies of Research

1. Theory-then-research:

1. Develop an explicit theory
2. Design a research project to test the statement with the empirical research
3. If the statement does not correspond with the research results, make appropriate changes in the theory.
4. If the statement corresponds with the results of the research, attempt to determine the limitations of the theory.

1. Research-then-theory

  a.    Select a phenomenon and list all the characteristics of the phenomenon.

  b.    Measure all the characteristics in a variety of situations.

  c.    Analyze the resulting data carefully determine if there are any systematic patterns among the data worthy of further attention

4. Once significant patterns have been found in the data, formalization of these patterns as theoretical statements constitutes the laws of nature.

Research methods:

1. Historical method
2. Comparative method
3. Scientific method

Scientific method:

The scientific method is a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.

Steps:

1. Defining a problem: the first step is to state as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. That is define the problem.
2. Reviewing the literature: by conducting a review of literature, researchers refine the problem under study.
3. Formulating hypothesis: hypothesis is speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables.

The variable which can influence another factor is called independent variable

  The second variable is termed as dependent variable

Correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other.

d.      Collecting and analyzing data: various techniques are there to collect the data. The most important techniques are:

• Survey
• Observation
• Case study

Another important factor of collecting data is sampling.

e.      Ensuring validity and reliability:

Validity refers to the extent to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study.

Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results.

f.        Developing a conclusion: scientific studies do not aim to answer to all the questions that can be raised about particular subject. Therefore the conclusion of a research study represents both an end and a beginning.

Survey:

            The survey is by far the most commonly used technique of data collection because of its ability to deal with large number of respondents

Characteristics:

1. Sampling is essential
2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents
3. It usually involves many respondents as compared with other methods of data collection.
4. It is conducted in natural settings.

Types of survey:

                                                                  I.            The interview and

                                                                II.            The questionnaire

The interview survey: the instrument used here is called the interview schedule

The questionnaire survey: questionnaire.

Advantages of survey:

1. Less expensive
2. Representative

Disadvantages of survey:

            It can be affected by the biases introduced in the interactions among the interviewers and the respondents.

Observation:

            Investigators who collect data through direct participation and/or closely watching a group or community under study are engaged in observation. Another branch of observation is participant observation.

Participant observation: it is frequently used by the anthropologists. In this technique, the researcher withholding his true identity joins a particular community from which he wants to gather data as one of their members.

            Researcher can find information without asking people directly about the community affairs.

Advantages:

1. The validity of the information is high.
2. Information can be observed more closely through participant observation.

Disadvantages:

1. The researcher may have to spend long time.
2. The disguised researcher may take the advantage of the participants and violate the interpersonal trust.

Case Study:

The case study approach offers a means of organizing social data with the view to preserving the ‘wholeness’ of the social object being studied.

            The social object may be a person, a family, a social group or process or a culture. From the study of the cases, the social scientists try to identify those properties that are common to or typical of most cases.

Advantage: the case study approach affords the researcher a wide range and depth of experience.

Disadvantages:

1. Since each case must be studied intensively and deeply, the process is quite time consuming and therefore costly.
2. 2. Generalization cannot be made from a few cases to the population.
3. 3. A case-study does not represent the total reality.
4. Open-ended questionnaire: it is designed to permit a free response from the subject rather than one limited to standard alternatives.
5. Close-ended questionnaire/ fixed alternative questions: this is one in which the responses of the subject are limited to stated alternatives. These alternatives may be simply ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
6. Operational Definition: an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept.

Sampling:

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population.

            It contrasts especially with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the defined population is included.

Characteristics:

1. Sample is faster and cheaper
2. It can yield more comprehensive information
3. It is more accurate.

Most widely used sampling:

Random: it is a process of selecting a sample from a set of all sampling units, giving each sampling unit an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Random sampling may be with replacement and without replacement.

R.S.with replacement: a chosen element is always replaced before the next selection is made.

R.S. without replacement: a chosen element is not replaced before the next selection is made.

In actual practice, random sampling is done without replacement since there is a possibility of picking the same individual a number of times.

Purposive sampling: Sampling is done on the basis of purpose.